The
Universal Networking Language (UNL)
Specifications
Version 3
Edition 2
UNDL Foundation
1 July 2003
The UNL is an acronym for “Universal Networking Language”. It is a computer
language that enables computers to process information and knowledge across the
language barriers. It is an artificial language that replicates, in the cyber
world, the functions of natural languages in human communication. As a result,
it enables people to express all knowledge conveyed by natural languages. It
also enables computer to intercommunicate, thus providing people with a
linguistic infrastructure for distributing, receiving and understanding
multilingual information.
The UNL expresses information or knowledge in the form of semantic
network with hyper-node. Different from natural languages, UNL expressions are
unambiguous. In the UNL semantic network, nodes represent concepts, and arcs
represent relations between concepts. Concepts can be annotated.
Although the UNL is a language for
computers, it has all the components of a natural language. It is composed of
words expressing concepts called “Universal
words”, also referred to as UWs which are inter-linked with other UWs to form
sentences. These links, known as “relations”, specify role of each word in a sentence.
The subjective meaning intended by the speaker can be expressed through
“attributes”. In addition, the “Knowledge Base (UNLKB)” is provided to define
semantics of UWs. The UNLKB defines every possible relations between concepts including
hierarchical relations and inference mechanism based on inclusion relations
between concepts. Thus, the UNLKB provides semantic background of the UNL to
make sure the meaning of the UNL expressions is unambiguous.
Binary relations are the building blocks of UNL expressions. They are made up of a relation and two UWs. This section deals with the definition and interpretation of the binary relations of the UNL expression.
There are two forms for expressing the UNL expressions, one is the table form and the other is the list form. The table form of a UNL expression is more readable than the list form, but the list form of a UNL expression is more compact than the table form. Here, only the table form is explained and the list form is shown in Chapter 5.
Any component, such as a word, phrase or title and, of course, a sentence of a natural language can be represented with UNL expressions. A UNL expression therefore consists of a UW or a (set of) binary relation(s). In UNL documents, a UNL expression for a sentence is enclosed by the tags {unl} and {/unl} inside [S] and [/S]. If a UNL expression consists of a UW, this UW should be enclosed further by the tags [W] and [/W]. If necessary, the whole sentence can also be expressed as a scope. In this case, the Compound UW-ID of the scope should be enclosed by [W] and [/W].
Thus, the UNL expression of a sentence is the following:
{unl}
<Binary Relation>
...
{/unl}
or,
{unl}
[W]
<UW><Attribute List>
[/W]
{/unl}
or,
{unl}
[W]
”:”<Compound UW-ID><Attribute List>
[/W]
<Binary Relation>
...
{/unl}
A binary relation is made up as follows:
|
<Binary Relation> |
::= <Relation Label> [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {{ <UW1> [":" <UW-ID1>]} | { “:” <Compound UW-ID1> }}[<Attribute List>] “,” {{ <UW2> [":" <UW-ID2>]} | { “:” <Compound UW-ID2> }}[<Attribute List>] “)” |
|
<Relation Label> |
::= a relation, see “Chapter 2: Relations” |
|
<UW> |
::= an UW, see “Chapter 3: Universal Words” |
|
<Attribute List> |
::= { “.” <Attribute> } … |
|
<Attribute> |
::= an attribute, see “Chapter 4: Attributes” |
|
<UW-ID> |
::= two characters of ‘0’ – ‘9’ and ‘A’ – ‘Z’ |
|
<Compound UW-ID> |
::= two-digit decimal number (00 – 99) 00 is used for representing the main sentence, which can be omitted. |
Compound UW-IDs are strings of two digits used to identify each instance specified by Compound UWs. Compound UWs are groups of binary relations (so-called “Scope-Nodes”) that can be referred to as a UW.
For instance, the following shows an example of a UNL expression of the sentence “I can hear a dog barking outside”.
{unl}
aoj(hear(icl>perceive(agt>thing,obj>thing)).@entry.@ability, I)
obj(hear(icl>perceive(agt>thing,obj>thing)).@entry.@ability, :01)
agt:01(bark(agt>dog).@entry, dog(icl>mammal))
plc:01(bark(agt>dog).@entry, outside(icl>place))
{/unl}
In the above UNL expressions, “aoj”, “agt” and “obj” are the relation labels, “hear(icl>perceive(agt>thing,obj>thing))”, “I”, “bark(agt>dog)”, “dog(icl>mammal)” and “outside(icl>place)” are the UWs, and “:01”, which appears three times in the example, shows the Compound UW-ID. The Compound UW-ID appears in the position of a UW, the so-called “scope-node”, and is used to cite or refer to a Compound UW previously defined. Binary relations indicated by the Compound UW-ID define the contents of the scope. A scope-node always begin with “:” followed by the two digits of a Compound UW-ID.
UW-IDs are
omitted from the above UNL expression. When a UW is unique in a UNL expression,
the UW-ID can be omitted.
The UW-ID is used to indicate some referential information, for example that there are two or more different occurrences of the same concept (they are not co-referent). Normally, if the same UW occurs more than once, it is in all cases understood to refer to the same entity or occurrence. For example, if one man greeted another man, the same UW would be used twice -- “man(icl>male person)” and it is possible to distinguish one from the other with the UW-IDs:
man(icl>male person):01 for the first and
man(icl>male person):02 for the other, to make it clear that the first man did not greet himself.
This section deals with the definition and interpretation of the relation labels of the UNL.
The relations between UWs in binary relations have different labels according to the different roles they play. These Relation-Labels are listed and defined below.
A relation label is represented as strings of 3 characters or less.
There are many factors to be considered in choosing an inventory of relations. The principles for choosing relations are as follows.
Principle-1 Necessary Condition
When
an UW has relations between more than two other UWs, each relation label should
be set so as to be able to identify each relation on the premise that there is
enough knowledge about the concept of each UW expressed.
Principle-2 Sufficient Condition
When
there are relations between UWs, each relation label should be set so as to be
able to understand the role of each UW only by referring to the relation label.
The following are the relations defined according to the above principles.
Agt defines a thing that initiates an action.
agt (do, thing)
agt [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
An agent is defined as the relation between:
UW1 - do, and
UW2 - a thing
where:
· UW2 initiates UW1, or
· UW2 is thought of as having a direct role in making UW1 happen.
|
agt(break(agt>thing,obj>thing), John(icl>person)) agt(translate(agt>thing,gol>language,obj>information,src>language), computer(icl>machine)) agt(run(icl>act(agt>volitional thing)), car(icl>vehicle)) agt(break(agt>thing,obj>thing), explosion(icl>event)) |
John breaks … computer translates … car runs … explosion breaks … |
An agent is different from cag in that an agent initiates the action, whereas a co-agent initiates a different, accompanied action.
An agent is different from ptn in that an agent is the focused initiator of the action, whereas a partner is a non-focused initiator.
An agent is different from con in that an agent is the focused initiator of the action, whereas a condition is an indirect, usually unfocussed, influence on the action.
And defines a conjunctive relation between concepts.
and (uw, uw)
and [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A conjunction is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a concept, and
UW2 – another concept,
where:
· The UWs are different, and
· UW1 and UW2 are seen as grouped together, and
· what is said of UW1 is also said of UW2.
|
and(quickly, easily) and(sing(agt>person), dance(agt>person)) and(Mary(icl>person), John(icl>person)) |
… easily and
quickly … singing and dancing … John and Mary |
A conjunction is different from or in that with and things are grouped together to say the same thing about both of them, whereas with or we separate them to indicate that what is true about one is not true about the other.
A conjunction is different from cag in that when the agents are conjoined, both initiate an explicit event, whereas with cag, the co-agent initiates an implicit event.
A conjunction is different from ptn in that when the agents and partners are conjoined, both are in focus, whereas with ptn, the partner is not in focus (as compared to the agent).
A conjunction is different from coo and seq in meaning, although in many cases the same expressions can be used for both. A conjunction only means that terms are grouped together; no information about time is implied. Coo, on the other hand, means that the terms are in the same time, whether they are considered to be grouped together or not. In turn, seq means that the terms are ordered in time, one after the other.
Aoj defines a thing that is in a state or has an attribute.
aoj (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
aoj (thing, thing)
aoj (be, thing)
aoj [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A thing with an attribute is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a state or a thing which represents a state, and
UW2 – a thing,
where:
· UW1 is an attribute or state of UW2, or
· UW1 is a state associated with UW2.
|
aoj(red(aoj>thing), leaf(pof>plant)) aoj(available, information) aoj(nice, ski(agt>person)) aoj(teacher(icl>occupation), John(icl>person)) aoj(have(aoj>thing,obj>thing), I) obj(have(aoj>thing,obj>thing), pen(icl>writing instrument)) aoj(know(aoj>thing,obj>thing), John(icl>person)) aoj:01(difficult(aoj>thing,obj>thing), it) aoj(:01, John(icl>person)) |
... leaf is red. This information is available for … Skiiing is nice. John is a teacher. I have a pen. John knows … It is difficult for John. |
A thing with an attribute is different from mod in that mod gives some restriction, whereas aoj gives a state or characteristic.
A thing with an attribute is different from ben in that a beneficiary is quite independent from a focused event or state. This event or state can be considered as exerting a good or bad influence, whereas aoj has a closer relation and can be considered as describing a state or characteristic.
A thing with an attribute is different from obj in that obj defines a thing which is directly affected by an action or phenomenon, whereas, aoj defines a thing in a state.
Bas defines a thing used as the basis (standard) for expressing a degree.
bas (degree, thing)
bas [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A basis is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a degree, and
UW2 – a thing,
where:
· UW1 is a degree expressing similarity or difference, such as “more”, “most”, “less”, “same”, “similar”, “as much as”, “at least” etc., and
· UW2 is something used as the basis for evaluating the characteristics or quantity of some other (focused) thing.
|
bas(more(aoj>thing), 7) bas(more(icl>how), Jack(icl>person)) bas(same(icl>how), girl(icl>female person).@pl) bas(at least, :01) qua:01(dollar(icl>money).@pl, 500) man(beautiful, more(icl>how)) bas(more(icl>how), rose(icl>flower)) aoj(:01, John(icl>person)) man:01(quiet(aoj>thing), more(icl>how)) bas:01(more(icl>how), shy(aoj>thing,mod<thing)) |
Ten is three more than seven. Betty weighs more than Jack (does). We treat boys
exactly the same as girls It’ll cost at least 500 dollars. A tulip is more beautiful than a rose John is more quiet than shy. |
Ben defines an indirectly related beneficiary or victim of an event or state.
ben (occur, thing)
ben (do, thing)
ben (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
ben [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A beneficiary is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a thing,
where:
· UW2 is thought of as being indirectly affected by UW1, as the beneficiary or victim.
|
ben(give(agt>thing,gol>thing,obj>thing)), Mary(icl>person)) ben(good(aoj>thing,mod<thing)), John(icl>person)) |
To give … for Mary. It is good for John to … |
A beneficiary is different from aoj in that aoj has a close relation and can be considered as describing a state characteristic, whereas a beneficiary is quite independent from a focused event or state, but this event or state can be considered as exerting a good or bad influence.
Cag defines a thing not in focus that initiates an implicit event that is done in parallel.
cag (do, thing)
cag [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A co-agent is defined as the relation between:
UW1 - an action, and
UW2 - a thing
where:
· There is an implicit action that is independent of, but accompanies, UW1, and
· UW2 is thought of as initiating the implicit action, and
· UW2 and the implicit action are seen as not being in focus (as compared to the agent’s action).
|
cag(walk(icl>do), John(icl>person)) cag(live(icl>do), aunt(icl>person)) |
To walk with John To live with … aunt |
A co-agent is different from agt in that differing independent actions occur for an agent and a co-agent. Moreover, an agent and its action are in focus, while a co-agent and its action are not in focus.
A co-agent is different from the ptn in that the co-agent initiates an action that is independent of an agent’s action, whereas a partner initiates the same action together with an agent.
A co-agent is different from con in that a co-agent initiates a non-focused action, whereas a condition is an indirect influence on the focused action.
Cao defines a thing not in focus that is in a parallel state.
cao (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
cao (thing, thing)
cao [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A co-thing with an attribute is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a state or a thing which represents a state, and
UW2 – a thing,
where:
· There is an implicit state that is independent of, but accompanies, UW1, and
· UW2 is in an implicit state, or
· UW2 is associated with an implicit state.
|
cao(exist(icl>be), you) |
… be with you |
A co-thing with an attribute is different from aoj in that there is a different, independent state for the thing with an attribute and a co-thing with an attribute, respectively.
Cnt defines an equivalent concept.
cnt (thing, thing)
cnt [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A content is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing, and
UW2 – a thing,
where:
· UW2 is a content or explanation of UW1.
|
cnt(UNL(icl>Universal Networking Language), Universal Networking Language) cnt(Internet(icl>communication network), amalgamation(icl>harmony)) cnt(language generator, deconverter.@double_quote) |
UNL, Universal
Networking Language The Internet: an
amalgamation a language generator “deconverter”… |
Cob defines a thing that is directly affected by an implicit event done in parallel or an implicit state in parallel.
cob (occur, thing)
cob (do, thing)
cob (uw(aoj>thing,obj>thing), thing)
cob [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A “co-object” is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a thing,
where:
· UW2 is thought of as directly affected by an implicit event done in parallel or an implicit state in parallel.
|
cob(die(obj>living thing), Mary(icl>person)) obj(injure(icl>hurt(agt>thing,obj>living thing), John(icl>person)) cob(injure(icl>hurt(agt>thing,obj>living thing), friend(icl>comrade).@pl ) |
… dead with Mary John was injured in the accident with his friends |
A co-object is different from obj in that the obj is in focus, whereas cob is related to a second, non-focused implicit event or state.
Con defines a non-focused event or state that conditions a focused event or state.
con (occur, occur)
con (occur, do)
con (occur, uw(aoj>thing))
con (do, occur)
con (do, do)
con (do, uw(aoj>thing))
con (uw(aoj>thing), occur)
con (uw(aoj>thing), do)
con (uw(aoj>thing), uw(aoj>thing))
con [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A condition is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a focused event or state, and
UW2 – a conditioning event or state,
where:
· UW1 and UW2 are different and
· UW2 is thought of as having an indirect or external role in making UW1 happen, that is, as some conditioning or inhibiting factor (real or hypothesized) that influences whether or when UW1 can happen.
|
aoj:01(tired(aoj>thing,mod<thing), you) con(go(icl>move(agt>thing,gol>place,src>place)), :01) |
If you are tired, we will go straight home. |
Coo defines a co-occurrent event or state for a focused event or state.
coo (occur, occur)
coo (occur, do)
coo (occur, uw(aoj>thing))
coo (do, occur)
coo (do, do)
coo (do, uw(aoj>thing))
coo (uw(aoj>thing), occur)
coo (uw(aoj>thing), do)
coo (uw(aoj>thing), uw(aoj>thing))
coo [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A co-occurrence is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a focused event or state, and
UW2 – a co-occurrent event or state,
where:
· UW1 and UW2 are different, and
· UW1 occurs or is true at the same time as UW2.
|
coo(run(icl>act(agt>volitional thing)), cry(icl>weep(agt>volitional thing)) coo(red(aoj>thing,mod<thing), hot(aoj>thing,mod<thing)) |
… was crying
while running … is red while … is hot |
A co-occurrence is different from seq in that seq describes events or states that do not occur at the same time, but one after the other, whereas coo describes events that occur simultaneously.
A co-occurrence is different from tim in that coo relates the times of events or states with other events or states, whereas tim relates events or states directly with points or intervals of time.
Dur defines a period of time during which an event occurs or a state exists.
dur (occur, period)
dur (occur, event)
dur (occur, state)
dur (occur, occur)
dur (occur, do)
dur (occur, uw(aoj>thing))
dur (do, period)
dur (do, event)
dur (do, state)
dur (do, occur)
dur (do, do)
dur (do, uw(aoj>thing))
dur (uw(aoj>thing), period)
dur (uw(aoj>thing), event)
dur (uw(aoj>thing), state)
dur (uw(aoj>thing), occur)
dur (uw(aoj>thing), do)
dur (uw(aoj>thing), uw(aoj>thing))
dur [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A duration is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or a state, and
UW2 – a period during which the event or state continues.
|
dur(work(agt>person), hour(icl>period)) qua(hour(icl>period), 9) dur(talk(icl>express(agt>thing,gol>person,obj>thing), meeting(icl>event) dur(come(icl>move(agt>thing,gol>place,src>place), absence(icl>state)) |
… work nine hours (a day) … talk … during meeting … come during (my) absence |
Fmt defines a range between two things.
fmt (thing, thing)
fmt [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A range (from-to) is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a range-initial thing, and
UW2 – a range-final thing,
where:
· The UWs are different, and
· UW2 describes the beginning of a range and UW1 describes the end.
|
fmt(a(icl>letter), z(icl>letter)) fmt(Osaka(icl>city), New York(icl>city)) fmt(Monday(icl>day), Friday(icl>day)) |
the alphabets from a to z the distance from
Osaka to New York the weekdays from Monday to Friday |
A range is different from src and gol in that for src and gol the initial and final states of certain obj are characterized with respect to some event, whereas fmt makes a similar characterization but without linking the endpoints of a range to some event.
A range is different from plf and plt or tmf and tmt in that fmt defines endpoints of a range without reference to any sort of event, whereas plf, plt, tmf and tmt delimit events.
Frm defines an origin of a thing.
frm (thing, thing)
frm [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
An origin is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing, and
UW2 – an origin of the thing,
where:
· UW2 describes the origin such as the original position of UW1.
|
frm(visitor(icl>person), Japan(icl>country)) |
a visitor from Japan |
Gol defines a final state of object or a thing finally associated with the object of an event.
gol (occur(gol>thing), thing)
gol (do(gol>thing), thing)
gol [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A final state is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event, and
UW2 – a state or thing,
where:
· UW2 is the specific state describing the obj (of UW1) at the end of UW1, or
· UW2 is a thing that is associated with the obj (of UW1) and the end of UW1.
|
gol(change(gol>thing,obj>thing,src>thing), red(aoj>thing,mod<thing)) gol(deposit(icl>save(agt>thing,obj>thing)), account(icl>record)) |
the lights changed
from green to red millions were deposited in a Swiss bank account |
A final state is different from tmf and plf in that gol describes qualitative characteristics and not time or place.
A final state is different from src in that gol describes the characteristics of the obj at the final state of the event.
Ins defines an instrument to carry out an event.
ins (do, concrete thing)
ins [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
An instrument is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event, and
UW2 – a concrete thing,
where:
· UW2 specifies the concrete thing that is used in order to make UW1 happen.
|
ins(look(agt>thing,obj>thing), telescope(icl>optical instrument) ins(write(icl>express(agt>thing,obj>thing)), pencil(icl>stationery)) ins(cut(agt>thing,obj>thing,opl>thing), scissors(icl>cutley)) |
look at stars through [with] a telescope write [draw]
with a pencil He cut the string with a pair of scissors |
An instrument is different from man in that man describes an event as a whole, whereas ins characterizes one of the components of the event: the use of the instrument.
An instrument is different from met in that met is used for abstract things (abstract means or methods), whereas “ins” is used for concrete things.
Man defines a way to carry out an event or the characteristics of a state.
man (occur, how)
man (do, how)
man (uw(aoj>thing), how)
man [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A “manner” is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a manner,
where:
· The UWs are different, and
· UW1 is done or exists in a way characterized by UW2.
|
man(move(agt<thing,gol>place,src>place), quickly) man(visit(agt>thing,obj>thing)), often) man(beautiful, very(icl>how)) |
move quickly I often visit him. it is very beautiful. |
A manner is different from ins or met in that met describes how an event is carried out in terms of the instruments or component steps of the event, whereas man describes other quantitative or qualitative characteristics of the event as a whole.
Met defines a means to carry out an event.
met (do, abstract thing)
met (do, do)
met [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A “method or means” is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event, and
UW2 – an abstract thing or an action,
where:
· UW2 specifies the abstract thing used or the steps carried out in order to make UW1 happen.
|
met(solve(icl>resolve(agt>thing,obj>thing)), dynamics(icl>science)) met(solve(icl> resolve(agt>thing,obj>thing)), algorithm(icl>method)) met(separate(agt>thing,obj>thing,src>thing)), cut(agt>thing,obj>thing,opl>thing)) |
… solve …
with dynamics … solve …
using … algorithm … separate … by cutting … |
A method or means is different from man in that man describes an event as a whole, whereas met characterizes the component steps, procedures or instruments of the event.
A method or means is different from ins in that met is used for abstract things (abstract means or methods), whereas ins is used for concrete things.
Mod defines a thing that restricts a focused thing.
mod (thing, thing)
mod (thing, uw(mod>thing))
mod [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A “modification” is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a focused thing, and
UW2 – a thing that restricts UW1 in some way.
|
mod(story(icl>tale), whole(mod<thing)) mod(plan(icl>idea), master(mod<thing)) mod(part(pof>thing), main(aoj>thing)) qua(block(icl>concrete thing), 3) mod(ice(icl>solid), block(icl>concrete thing)) |
the whole story a master plan the main part … three blocks of ice … |
A modification is different from aoj in that aoj describes a state or characteristic of a thing, whereas mod merely indicates a restriction, which might indirectly suggest some characteristics of the thing described. Most mod relations require a paraphrase introducing some implicit event to become clearer, and even then many possibilities are usually available.
A modification is different from man in that man describes a way to carry out an event or the characteristics of a state.
Nam defines a name of a thing.
nam (thing, thing)
nam [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A name is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing, and
UW2 – a thing used as a name,
where:
· UW2 is a name of UW1.
|
Nam(tower(icl>building), Tokyo(icl>city)) |
Tokyo tower |
Obj defines a thing in focus that is directly affected by an event or state.
obj (occur, thing)
obj (do, thing)
obj (be, thing)
obj (uw(aoj>thing,obj>thing), thing)
obj [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
Detailed Definition
An affected thing is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a thing,
where:
· UW2 is thought of as directly affected by an event or state.
|
obj(move(gol>place,obj>thing,src>place), table(icl>furniture)) obj(melt(gol>thing,obj>thing), sugar(icl>seasoning)) obj(cure(agt>thing,obj>thing), patient(icl>person)) obj(have(aoj>thing,obj>thing), pen(icl>writing instrument)) |
the table moved. the sugar melts into … to cure the patient. I have a pen. |
An affected thing is different from cob in that obj is in focus, whereas cob is related to a second, non-focused implicit event or state.
Opl defines a place in focus affected by an event.
opl (do, place)
opl [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
An affected place is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event, and
UW2 – a place or thing defining a place,
where:
· UW2 is the specific place where the change described by UW1 is directed, or
· UW2 is a place that is seen as being affected during the event.
|
opl(pat(icl>touch(agt>thing,obj>thing,opl>thing)), shoulder(pof>trunk)) opl(cut(agt>thing,obj>thing,opl>thing), middle(icl>place)) |
… pat … on shoulder … cut … in middle |
An affected place is different from obj and cob in that what is affected by the event is a place rather than other kinds of things.
An affected place is different from plc in that an affected place is characterized by the event, while the physical and logical place defines the environment in which the event happens.
Or defines a disjunctive relation between two concepts.
or (uw, uw)
or [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A disjunction is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing, and
UW2 – a concept,
where:
· The UWs are different, and
· Some description is true for either UW1 or UW2 (but not both), or
· Some description is true for either UW1 or UW2 (and perhaps both).
|
or(stay(icl>do), leave(icl>do)) or(red(icl>color), blue(icl>color)) or(John(icl>person), Jack(icl>person)) |
Will you stay or leave? Is it red or blue? Who is going to do it, John or Jack? |
A disjunction is different from a conjunction in that the items of disjunction are grouped in order to say that something is true for one or the other, whereas in a conjunction they are grouped to say that the same is true for both. A disjunction in formal logic permits three situations for it to be true: 1) it is true for UW1, 2) it is true for UW2, 3) it is true for both. On the other hand, a conjunction only permits the third situation.
Per defines a basis or unit of proportion, rate or distribution.
per (thing, thing)
per [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A proportion, rate or distribution is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a quantity, and
UW2 – a quantity, or a thing seen as a quantity,
where:
· UW1 and UW2 form a proportion, where UW1 is the numerator and UW2 is the denominator, or
· UW2 is the basis or unit for understanding UW1, or
· Each UW expresses a different dimension, of size, for example.
|
per(hour(icl>period), day(icl>period)) qua(hour(icl>period), 8) per(time(icl>frequency), week(icl>period)) qua(time(icl>frequency), 2) |
eitgh hours a
day … twice a week |
Plc defines a place where an event occurs, or a state that is true, or a thing that exists.
plc (occur, thing)
plc (do, thing)
plc (be, thing)
plc (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
plc (thing, thing)
plcl [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A place is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event, state, or thing, and
UW2 – a place or thing understood as a place.
|
plc(cook(icl>do), kitchen(pof>building)) plc(sit(icl>do), beside(icl>place)) plc(cool(icl>cold), here(icl>place)) |
… cook … in the kitchen … sit beside me It’s cool here. |
A place is different from plf and plt or src and gol in that plc describes a place with respect to an event as a whole, whereas these other relations describe the position with respect to parts of an event.
A place is different from opl in that plc is not seen as being modified by an event but merely as a reference point for characterizing it, whereas opl is seen as being modified.
Plf defines a place where an event begins or a state that becomes true.
plf (occur, thing)
plf (do, thing)
plf (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
plf [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
An “initial place” (or “place-from”) is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a place or thing defining a place,
where:
· UW2 is the specific place where UW1 started, or
· UW2 is the specific place from where UW1 is true.
|
plf(come(icl>do), home(icl>place)) plf(deep(aoj>thing), there(icl>place)) |
… come from home The sea is deep from there to here. |
An initial place is different from plc in that plc describes events or states taken as a whole, whereas plf describes only the initial part of an event or state.
An initial place is different from plt in that plt describes the final part of an event or state, whereas plf describes the initial part of an event or state.
An initial place is different from src in that plf describes the place where the event began, whereas src describes the initial state of the object.
Plt defines a place where an event ends or a state that becomes false.
plt (occur, thing)
plt (do, thing)
plt (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
plt [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A final place is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a place or thing defining a place,
where:
· UW2 is the specific place where UW1 ended, or
· UW2 is the specific place where UW2 becomes false.
|
plt(travel(icl>do), Boston(icl>city)) plt(deep(aoj>thing), here(icl>place)) |
I’m travelling up to Boston The sea is deep from there to here |
A final place is different from plc in that plc describes events or states taken as a whole, whereas plt describes only the final part of an event.
A final place is different from plf in that plt describes the final part of an event or state, whereas plf describes the initial part of an event.
A final place is different from gol in that plt describes the place where an event or state ended, whereas gol describes the final state of the object.
Pof defines a concept of which a focused thing is a part.
pof (thing, thing)
pof [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
Part-of is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a partial thing, and
UW2 – a whole thing,
where:
· UW1 is a part of UW2.
Examples and readings
|
Pof(wing(icl>limb), bird(icl>animal)) |
Bird’s wing. |
Pos defines the possessor of a thing.
pos (thing, volitional thing)
pos [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A possessor is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing or a place, and
UW2 - a human or non-human, seen as a volitional thing
where:
· UW2 is a possessor of UW1.
|
pos(dog(icl>aminal), John(icl>person)) pos(book(icl>concrete thing), I) |
John’s dog my book |
Ptn defines an indispensable non-focused initiator of an action
ptn (do, thing)
ptn [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A partner is defined as the relation between:
UW1 - an action, and
UW2 - a human or non-human, seen as a volitional thing
where:
· UW2 is thought of as having a direct role in making an indispensable part of UW1 happen, and
· UW1 is the same, collaborative event as that initiated by the agent, and
· UW2 is seen as not being in focus (as compared to the agent).
|
ptn(compete(icl>do), John(icl>person)) ptn(share(icl>do(obj>thing)), poor(icl>person)) ptn(collaborate(icl>do), he) |
… compete with John … share … with the poor … collaborate with him … |
A partner is different from agt in that an agent and its event are in focus, while a partner and its event are not in focus.
A partner is different from cag in that a co-agent initiates an event that is independent of an agent’s event, whereas a partner initiates the same event together with an agent.
A partner is different from con in that a partner initiates the same event as an agent does, whereas a condition only has an indirect influence on that event.
Pur defines the purpose or objective of an agent of an event or a purpose of a thing that exists.
pur (occur, occur)
pur (occur, do)
pur (do, occur)
pur (do, do)
pur (occur, thing)
pur (do, thing)
pur (thing, occur)
pur (thing, do)
pur (thing, thing)
pur [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A purpose or objective is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing or an event, and
UW2 – a thing or an event,
where:
· The UWs are different, and
When UW1 is an event:
· UW2 specifies the agent’s purpose or objective, or
· UW2 specifies the thing (object, state, event, etc.) that the agent desires to attain by carrying out UW1, or
When UW1 is not an event:
· UW2 is what UW1 is to be used for.
|
pur(come(icl>do), see(icl>do(obj>thing))) pur(work(icl>do), money(icl>do)) pur(budget(icl>expense), research(icl>do)) |
… come to see you ... work for money our budget for research |
A purpose or objective is different from gol in that pur describes the desires of an agent, whereas gol describes the state of the object at the end of the event.
A purpose or objective is different from man and met in that pur describes the reason why the event is being carried out, while man and met describe how it is being carried out.
Qua defines^the quantity of a thing or unit.
qua (thing, quantity)
qua [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A quantity is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing, and
UW2 – quantity,
where:
· UW2 is the number or amount of UW1.
|
qua(cup(icl>tabelware), 2)) mod(coffee(icl>beverage), cup(icl>tableware)) qua(kilogram(icl>unit), many(aoj>thing)) qua(dog(icl>animal), 2) |
Two cups of coffee many kilograms two dogs |
A quantity is different from per in that a quantity is an absolute number or amount, whereas per is a number or amount relative to some unit of reference (time, distance, etc.).
A quantity is also used to express iteration, or the number of times an event or state occurs.
Rsn defines a reason why an event or a state happens.
rsn (occur, thing)
rsn (do, thing)
rsn (occur, occur)
rsn (occur, do)
rsn (do, occur)
rsn (do, do)
rsn (occur, uw(aoj>thing))
rsn (do, uw(aoj>thing))
rsn (uw(aoj>thing), occur)
rsn (uw(aoj>thing), do)
rsn (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
rsn (uw(aoj>thing), uw(aoj>thing))
rsn [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A reason is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a reason for an event or state,
where:
· UW2 is a reason why UW1 happens.
|
rsn(go(icl>do), rain(icl>weather)) agt:01(arrive(icl>do), Mary(icl>person)) rsn(start(icl>do(obj>thing)), :01) rsn(known(aoj>thing), beauty(icl>abstract thing)) mod(city(icl>region), known(aoj>thing)) mod(beauty(icl>abstract thing), city(icl>region)) |
... didn't go because of the rain They can start because Mary arrived. a city known for its beauty |
Scn defines a virtual world where an event occurs, or state is true, or a thing exists.
scn (do, thing)
scn (occur, thing)
scn (uw(aoj>thing), thing)
scn (thing, thing)
scn [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A scene is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state or thing, and
UW2 – an abstract or metaphorical thing understood as a place,
where:
· The UWs are different, and
· UW1 is or happens in a place characterized by UW2.
|
scn(win(icl>do(obj>thing)), contest(icl>event)) scn(appear(icl>occur), program(icl>thing)) scn(play(icl>do), movie(icl>entertainment)) |
… win a prize in a contest … appear on a TV program … play in movie |
A scene is different from plc in that the reference place for plc is in the real world, whereas for scn it is an abstract or metaphorical world.
Seq defines a prior event or state of a focused event or state.
seq (occur, occur)
seq (occur, do)
seq (do, occur)
seq (do, do)
seq (occur, uw(aoj>thing))
seq (do, state)
seq (uw(aoj>thing), occur)
seq (uw(aoj>thing), do)
seq [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A “sequence” is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a focused event or state,
UW2 – a prior event or state,
where:
· The UWs are different, and
· UW1 occurs or is true after UW2.
|
seq(leap(icl>do), look(icl>do)) seq(red(aoj>thing), green(aoj>thing)) seq(take off(icl>do(obj>thing)), come in(icl>do)) |
Look before you leap. It was green and then red. She came in and took her coat off. |
A sequence is different from coo in that seq describes events or states that do not occur at the same time, but one after the other, whereas coo describes events that occur simultaneously.
A sequence is different from bas in that seq describes events or states in terms of order in time, whereas bas describes things or states in terms of qualitative differences or similarities.
Src defines the initial state of an object or thing initially associated with the object of an event.
src (occur, thing)
src (do, thing)
src [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
An initial state is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event, and
UW2 – a state or thing,
where:
· UW2 is the specific state describing the object of UW1 at the beginning of UW1, or
· UW2 is a thing that is associated with the object of UW1 at the beginning of UW1.
|
src(change(icl>occur), red(aoj>thing)) src(withdraw(icl>do(obj>thing)), stove(icl>furniture)) |
The lights changed from green to red. I quickly withdrew my hand from the stove. |
An initial state is different from tmf and plf in that src describes qualitative characteristics and not time or place.
An initial state is different from gol in that gol describes the characteristics of the object at the final state of the event.
Tim defines the time an event occurs or a state is true.
tim (occur, time)
tim (do, time)
tim (be, time)
tim (uw(aoj>thing), time)
tim [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
Time is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a time,
where:
· UW1, taken as a whole, occurs at the time indicated by UW2.
|
tim(leave(icl>do), Tuesday(icl>time)) tim(do(obj>thing), o’clock(icl>time)) tim(start(icl>do), come(icl>do)) |
… leave on Tuesday … do … at … o’clock Let’s start when … come |
Time is different from tmf and tmt in that time characterizes the event or state as a whole, whereas tmf and tmt describe only parts of the event.
Time is different from coo and seq in that time does not describe states and events relatively, with respect to each other, but with respect to certain points in time.
Tmf defines the time an event starts or a state becomes true.
tmf (occur, time)
tmf (do, time)
tmf (uw(aoj>thing), time)
tmf [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
Initial time is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a time,
where:
· UW2 specifies the time at which UW1 starts, or
· UW2 specifies the time at which UW1 became/becomes true.
|
tmf(work(icl>do), morning(icl>time)) tmf(change(icl>occur), live(icl>do)) |
… work from morning to [till] night … has changed … since I have lived here. |
Initial time is different from tim in that tmf expresses the time at the beginning of the event or state whereas tim expresses the time for the event taken as a whole.
Initial time is different from src in that tmf expresses the time at the beginning of the event or state whereas src expresses characteristics of the object at the beginning of the event.
Initial time is different from tmt in that tmf expresses the time at the beginning of the event or state whereas tmt expresses the time at its end.
Tmt defines a time an event ends or a state becomes false.
tmt (occur, time)
tmt (do, time)
tmt (uw(aoj>thing), time)
tmt [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
Final time is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event or state, and
UW2 – a time,
where:
· UW2 specifies the time at which UW1 ends, or
· UW2 specifies the time at which UW1 became/becomes false.
|
tmt(work(icl>do), night(icl>time)) tmt(full(aoj>thing), tomorrow(icl>time)) |
… work from moning to [till] night … be full till tomorrow |
Final time is different from tim in that tmt expresses the time at the end of the event or state, whereas tim expresses the time for the event taken as a whole.
Final time is different from gol in that tmt expresses the time at the end of the event or state, whereas gol expresses characteristics of the object at the end of the event.
Final time is different from tmf in that tmt expresses the time at the end of the event or state, whereas tmt expresses the time at the beginning of the event.
To defines the destination of a thing.
to (thing, thing)
to [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
A destination is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – a thing, and
UW2 – a destination of the thing,
where:
· UW2 describes the destination such as the final position of UW1.
|
to(train(icl>vehicle), London(icl>city)) to(letter(icl>message), you ) |
a train for
London a letter to you |
Via defines an intermediate place or state of an event.
via (occur(gol>thing,src>thing), thing)
via (do(gol>thing,src>thing), thing)
via [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {<UW1>|“:”<Compound UW-ID>} “,” {<UW2>|”:”<Compound UW-ID>} “)”
An intermediate place or state is defined as the relation between:
UW1 – an event, and
UW2 – a place or state,
where:
· UW2 is the specific place or state describing the object of UW1 at some time in the middle of UW1,
· UW2 is a thing that describes a place or state that the object of UW1 passed by or through during UW1.
|
via(go(icl>do), New York(icl>city)) via(bike(icl>do), Alps(icl>place)) via(drive(icl>do), tunnel(icl>topography)) |
… go … via New York … bike … through the Alps … drive … by way of the tunnel |
An intermediate place or state is different from src, plf and tmf in that these all refer to the beginning of an event, whereas via describes the middle of an event.
An intermediate place or state is different from gol, plt and tmt in that these all refer to the end of an event, whereas via describes the middle of an event.
A UW (Universal Word) represents simple or compound concepts. There are two classes of UWs:
· simple, unit concepts called “UWs” (Universal Words), and
· compound structures of binary relations grouped together and called “Compound UWs”. These are indicated with Compound UW-IDs, as described below.
A UW is made up of a character string (an English-language word) followed by a list of constraints. The meaning and function of each of these parts is described in the next section, on Interpretation.
The following expressions provide a more formal statement of the syntax of UWs.
|
<UW> |
::= <Head Word> [<Constraint List>] |
|
<Head Word> |
::= <character>… |
|
<Constraint List> |
::= “(“ <Constraint> [ “,” <Constraint>]… “)” |
|
<Constraint> |
::= <Relation Label> { “>” | “<” } <UW>
[<Constraint List>] | <Relation
Label> { “>” | “<” } <UW> [<Constraint List>] [ { “>” | “<” } <UW> [<Constraint List>] ] … |
|
<Relation Label> |
::= “agt” | and” | “aoj” | “obj” | “icl” | ... |
|
<character> |
::= “A” | ... | “Z” | “a” | ... | “z” | 0 | 1 | 2 | ... | 9 | “_” | ” “ | “#” | “!” | “$” | “%” | “=” | “^” | “~” | “|” | “@” | “+” | “-“ | “<” | “>” | “?” |
The Head Word is an English word/compound word/phrase/sentence that is interpreted as a label for a set of concepts: the set made up of all the concepts that may correspond to that in English. A Basic UW (with no restrictions or Constraint List) denotes this set. Each Restricted UW denotes a subset of this set that is defined by its Constraint List. Extra UWs denote new sets of concepts that do not have English-language labels.
Thus, the Head Word serves to organize concepts and make it easier to remember which is which.
The Constraint List restricts the interpretation of a UW to a subset or to a specific concept included within the Basic UW, thus the term “Restricted UWs”.
The Basic UW “drink”, without a Constraint List, includes the concepts of “putting liquids in the mouth”, “liquids that are put in the mouth”, “liquids with alcohol”, “absorb” and others.
The Restricted UW “drink(icl>do,obj>liquid)” denotes the subset of these concepts that includes “putting liquids in the mouth”, which in turn corresponds to verbs such as “drink”, “gulp”, “chug” and “slurp” in English.
The restrictions of Restricted UWs, their Constraint Lists, are Constraints. The Constraints that use the Relation Labels defined above can be seen as an abbreviated notation for full binary relations: drink(icl>do,obj>liquid) is the same as obj(drink(icl>do),liquid) which means something like “cases of drinking where the ‘obj’ is a liquid”.
Every constraint in the Constraint List should use the Relation Labels listed in Appendix 2 and each of them should be sorted in alphabetical order.
The
relation label "icl" can be omitted when it
is repeated to restrict the upper concept. For instance, a UW like “xxx(icl>change(icl>occur))”
can be simply defined as “xxx(icl>change>occur)”.
UWs, therefore, are character strings (words or expressions) that can be given specifications, attributes and Instance-IDs. Their function in the UNL system is to represent simple concepts. The three types of UWs, in order of practical importance, are:
· Basic UWs, which are bare Head Words with no Constraint List, for example:
go
take
house
state
· Restricted UWs, which are Head Words with a Constraint List, for example:
state(icl>express)
state(icl>country)
state(icl>abstract thing)
state(icl>government)
· Extra UWs, which are a special type of Restricted UW, for example:
ikebana(icl>flower arrangement)
samba(icl>dance)
soufflé(icl>food)
Basic UWs are character strings that correspond to an English word. A basic UW denotes all the concepts that may correspond to those in English. They are used to structure the knowledge base and as a fallback method for establishing correspondences between different language words when more specific correspondences cannot be found.
Restricted UWs are by far the most important. Each Restricted UW represents a more specific concept, or subset of concepts. The Constraint List restricts the range of the concept that a Basic UW represents.
The Basic UW “drink”, with no Constraint List, includes the concepts of “putting liquids in the mouth”, “liquids that are put in the mouth”, “liquids with alcohol”, “absorb” and others.
The Restricted UW “drink(icl>do(obj>liquid))” denotes the subset of these concepts that includes “putting liquids in the mouth”, which in turn corresponds to verbs such as “drink”, “gulp”, “chug” and “slurp” in English.
Consider again the examples of Restricted UWs given above:
state(icl>express) is a more specific concept (arbitrarily associated with the English word “state”) that denotes an action in which humans express something.
state(icl>country) is a more specific sense of “state” that denotes a nation or country.
state(icl>abstract thing) is a more specific sense of “state” that denotes a kind of condition that persons or things are in. This UW is defined as a more general concept that can be referred to when defining other synonymous Uws, such as “situation” or “condition”.
state(icl>government) is a more specific sense of “state” that denotes a kind of government.
The information in parentheses is the Constraint List and it describes some conceptual restrictions; this is why they are called Restricted UWs. Informally, the restrictions mean “restrict your attention to this particular sense of the word”. Thus, the focus is clearly the idea and not the specific English word.
It often turns out that in a given language there is a wide variety of different words for these concepts and not, coincidentally, all the same word, as in English.
It should be noted that by organizing these senses around the English words, the task of making a new UW/Specific Language dictionary is simplified. A bilingual English/Specific Language dictionary can be used, and proceeding from there, the number of different concepts necessary for each English word can be specified.
This, of course, does not mean that English words are translated; the English dictionary is simply used as a reminder of the concepts that will be dealt with so that the work can be organized more efficiently.
Extra UWs denote concepts that are not found in English and therefore have to be introduced as extra categories. Foreign-language words are used as Head Words using English (Alphabetical) characters. Consider again the examples given above:
ikebana(icl>flower arrangement) is “a kind of flower arrangement” for the meaning of “something you do with flowers”,
samba(icl>dance) is “a kind of dance”, and
soufflé(icl>food) is “a kind of food”.
To the extent that these concepts exist for
English speakers, they are expressed with foreign-language loanwords and do not
always appear in English dictionaries. So they simply have to be added to be
able to use these specific concepts in the UNL system. The Constraint List or
restrictions give the idea of what kind of concept is associated with these
Extra UWs and the constraints provide the binary relations between this concept
and other, more general, concepts already present (action, dance, food, etc.).
Compound UWs are a set of binary relations that are grouped together to express a complex concept. A sentence itself is considered as a compound UW. This makes it possible to deal with situations like:
Women who wear big hats in movie theaters should be asked to leave.
Without Compound UWs, it would be impossible to build up complex ideas like “women who wear big hats in move theaters” and then relate them to other concepts.
Compound UWs denote complex concepts that are to be interpreted as unit concepts, understood as a whole so that one can talk about their parts all at the same time. Consider again the example given above.
[Women who wear big hats in movie theaters] should be asked [to leave].
The part of the
sentence within square brackets is what should be asked. Only when they are
grouped together and considered as a whole unit can the correct interpretation
be obtained.
Just as such complex units can be related to other concepts with conceptual relations, attributes can be attached to them to express negation, speaker attitudes, etc., which are usually interpreted as modifying the main predicate within the Compound UW.
A Compound UW is defined by placing a Compound UW-ID immediately after the Relation Label in all of the binary relations that are to be grouped together. Thus, in the example below, “:01” indicates all of the elements that are to be grouped together to define Compound UW number 01.
agt:01(wear(icl>do(obj>thing)),
woman(icl>person).@pl)
obj:01(wear(icl>do(obj>thing)), hat(icl>clothes))
aoj:01(big(aoj>thing),
hat(icl>clothes))
plc:01(wear(icl>do(obj>thing),
theater(icl>facilities))
mod:01(theater(icl>facilities),
movie(icl>entertainment))
agt:01(leave(icl>do).@entry,
woman(icl>person).@pl)
After this group has been defined, wherever the Compound UW-ID is, for instance “01” in the above example, it can be used to cite the Compound UW. The way to cite a Compound UW is explained in the next section.
A Compound UW is considered as a sentence or sub-sentence, so in the definition of a Compound UW one entry node marked by @entry is necessary.
Once defined, a Compound UW can be cited or referred to by simply using the Compound UW-ID as an UW. The method is to indicate the Compound UW-ID following a colon “:”. The reference to a Compound UW is also called a Scope-Node. The Scope-Node has the following syntax:
|
<Scope-Node> |
::= “:” <Compound UW-ID> [ <Attribute List> ] |
|
<Compound UW-ID> |
::= two digits of a number 00 – 99 |
|
<Attribute List> |
::= { “.” <Attribute Label> } … |
|
<Attribute Label> |
::= “@entry” | “@may” | “@past” | ... |
To
complete the example above, it could be continued with:
obj(ask(icl>do(obj>thing)).@should,
:01)
gol(ask(icl>do(obj>thing)).@should,
woman.@pl)
Again, “:01” is interpreted as the whole set of binary relations defined above. It means that “:01” should be understood as comprising all of these binary relations. Compound UWs can be cited within other Compound UWs.
Attributes of UWs are used to describe the subjectivity of sentences. They show what is said from the speaker’s point of view: how the speaker views what is said. This includes phenomena technically called “speech acts”, “propositional attitudes”, “truth values”, etc. Relations and UWs are used to describe the objectivity of sentences. Attributes of UWs enrich this description with more information about how the speaker views these states-of-affairs and his attitudes toward them. Such attributes play the role of bridging the conceptual world represented by UWs and relations, and the real world. In other words, such attributes bring the concept defined by UWs and relations into the real world.
Where does the speaker situate his description in time, taking his moment of speaking as a point of reference? A time before he spoke? After? At approximately the same time? This is the information that defines “narrative time” as past, present or future. These Attributes are attached to the main predicate.
Although in many languages this information is signaled by tense markings on verbs, the concept is not tense, but “time with respect to the speaker”. The clearest example is the simple present tense in English, which is not interpreted as the present time, but as “independently of specific times”.
Consider the example: The earth is round.
This sentence is true in the past, present and future, independently of the speaker’s time, so although the tense is “present” it is not interpreted as the present time.
|
@past |
happened in the past |
ex) It was snowing yesterday |
|
@present |
happening at present |
ex) It is raining hard. |
|
@future |
will happen in future |
ex) He will arrive tomorrow |
A
speaker can emphasize or focus on part of an event or treat it as a whole unit.
This is closely linked to how the speaker places the event in time. These Attributes
are attached to the main predicate.
The speaker can focus on the beginning
(@begin) of the event, looking forward to it (@begin.@soon), or backward to it
(@begin.@just).
He can also focus on the end (@end) or
completion (@complete) of the event, looking forward to it (@end.@soon or
@complete.@soon), or backward to it (@end.@just or @complete.@just).
He can focus on the middle (@progress) or
continuation (@continue) of the event.
The speaker can choose to focus on the
lasting effects or final state of the event (@state) or on the event as a
repeating unit (@repeat), experience (@experience) or custom (@custom).
He can also focus on the incompleteness or
the fact that it has not yet happened, by using @yet.
|
@begin |
beginning of an event or a state |
Ex) It began to work again. |
|
@complete |
finishing/completion of a (whole) event. |
Ex) I've looked through the script. look.@entry.@complete |
|
@continue |
continuation of an event |
Ex) He went on talking. talk.@continue.@past |
|
@custom |
customary or repetitious action |
Ex) I used to visit [I would
often go] there when I was a boy. |
|
@end |
end/termination of an event or a state |
Ex) I have done it. do.@end.@present |
|
@experience |
experience |
Ex) Have you ever visited Japan? visit.@experience.@interrogation Ex) I have been there. visit.@exterience |
|
@progress |
an event is in progress |
Ex) I am working now. work.@progress.@present |
|
@repeat |
repetition of an event |
Ex) It is so windy that the tree branches are knocking against the roof. knock.@entry.@present.@repeat |
|
@state |
final state or the existence of the
object on which an action has been taken |
Ex) It is broken. |
These attributes are used to modify the attributes above, to express a variety of aspects of natural languages.
|
@just |
Expresses an
event or a state that has just begun or ended/been completed |
Ex) He has just come. come.@complete.@just |
|
@soon |
Expresses an
event or a state that is about to begin or end/be completed |
Ex) The train is about to leave. |
|
@yet |
Expresses the feeling of something not yet begun, ended or completed, or expresses an event or a state that has
not yet started or ended/been completed, together with @not. |
Ex) I have not yet done it. do.@complete.@not.@yet |
Whether an expression refers to a single individual, a small group or a whole set is often not clear. The expression “the lion” is not sufficiently explicit for us to know whether the speaker means “one particular lion” or “all lions”. Consider the following examples:
The lion is a feline mammal.
The lion is eating an antelope.
In the first example, it seems reasonable to suppose that the speaker understood “the lion” as “all lions”, whereas in the second example as “one particular lion”.
The following Attributes are used to make explicit what the speaker’s view of reference seems to be.
|
@generic |
generic concept |
Ex) The dog is a faithful animal. |
|
@def |
already referred |
Ex) the book you lost |
|
@indef |
non-specific class |
Ex) There is a book on the desk. |
|
@not |
complement set |
Ex) Don’t be late! |
|
@ordinal |
ordinal number |
Ex) the 2nd door |
These attributes are usually attached to UWs that denote things.
The speaker can choose to focus or emphasize parts of a sentence to show how important he thinks they are in the situation described. This is often related to sentence structure.
|
@contrast |
Contrasted UW |
For instance, “but” in the examples below is used to introduce a word or phrase that contrasts with what was said before. Ex) It wasn’t the red one but the blue one. Ex) He’s poor but happy. |
|
@emphasis |
Emphasized UW |
Ex) I do like it. |
|
@entry |
Entry or main UW of a sentence or a scope |
Ex) He promised (entry of the sentence) that he would come (entry of the scope) |
|
@qfocus |
Focused UW of a question |
Ex) Are you painting the bathroom blue? To this question, the answer will be “No, I’m painting the LIVING-ROOM blue” |
|
@theme |
Instantiates an object from a different class |
Ex) |
|
@title |
Title |
Ex) |
|
@topic |
Topic |
Ex) He(@topic) was killed by her. Ex) The girl(@topic) was given a doll. Ex) This doll(@topic) was given to the girl. |
One UW marked with "@entry" is essential for each UNL expression or in a Compound UW.
The speaker can also express, directly or indirectly, what his attitudes or emotions are towards what is being said or who it is being said to. This includes respect and politeness towards the listener and surprise toward what is being said.
|
@affirmative |
Affirmation Ex) |
|
@confirmation |
Confirmation Ex) You won't say that, will you? Ex) It’s red, isn’t it? Ex) Then you won't come, right? |
|
@exclamation |
Feeling
of exclamation Ex) kirei na! (“How beautiful (it is)!” in Japanese) Ex) Oh, look out! |
|
@imperative |
Imperative Ex) Get up! Ex) You will please leave the room. |
|
@interrogative |
Interrogation Ex) Who is it? |
|
@invitation |
Inducement
to do something Ex) Will / Won’t you have some tea? Ex) Let’s go, shall we? |
|
@polite |
Polite
feeling. Puts emphasis on a way of talking. Ex) Could you (please)... Ex) If you could … I would … |
|
@request |
Request
Ex) Please don’t forget… |
|
@respect |
Respectful
feeling. In many cases, some special words
are used. Ex) o taku (“(your) house” in Japanese) Ex) Good morning, sir. |
|
@vocative |
Vocative Ex) Boys, be ambitious! |
These attributes express the speaker’s feelings or how the speaker views or judges what is said.
This sort of subjective information is very much dependent on the type of language. It should be possible to express every kind of subjective information from all languages. Thus, the development of the attributes is open to the developers of each language, who can introduce a new attribute when no current attribute expresses its meaning. The new attribute must be also introduced in the same way.
The following attributes are used to clarify the speaker’s viewpoint information.
Ability |
|
|
@ability |
Ability,
capability of doing something Ex) The child can 't walk yet. Ex) He can speak English but he can’t write it very well. |
Admiration |
|
|
@admire |
Admiring
feeling of the speaker about something Ex) |
Conclusion |
|
|
@conclusion |
Logical
conclusion due to a certain condition Ex) He is her husband; she is his wife. |
|
@consequence |
Logical
consequence Ex) He was angry, wherefore I left him alone. |
Blames |
|
|
@blame |
Blameful
feeling of the speaker about something Ex) A sailor, and afraid of the sea! |
Consent and dissent |
|
|
@dissent |
Dissenting feeling of the speaker about something Ex) But that’s not true. |
|
@grant |
To
give/get consent/permission to do something Ex) Can I smoke in here? Ex) You may borrow my car if you like. |
|
@grant-not |
Not
to give consent to do something Ex) You {mustn't/are not allowed to/may not} borrow my car. |
Expectation |
||
|
@although |
Something
follows against [contrary to] or beyond expectation Ex) Although he didn't speak, I felt a certain warmth in his manner. |
|
|
@discontented |
Discontented
feeling of the speaker about something Ex) (I'll tip you 10 pence.) But that's not enough! |
|
|
@expectation |
Expectation
of something Ex) Children ought to be able to read by the age of 7. Ex) If you leave now, you should get there by five o'clock. |
|
|
@wish |
Wishful
feeling, to wish something is true or has happened Ex) If only I could remember his name! (~I do wish I could remember his name!) Ex) You might have just let me know. |
|
|
Intention |
|
|
@insistence |
Strong
determination to do something Ex) He will do it, whatever you say. |
|
@intention |
Intention
about something or to do something Ex) He shall get this money. (Speaker’s intention) Ex) We shall let you know our decision. |
|
@will |
Determination
to do something Ex) I’ll write as soon as I can. Ex) We won’t stay longer than two hours. |
|
Necessity, obligation |
|
|
@need |
Necessity
to do something Ex) You need to finish thit work today. |
|
@obligation |
Obligation
to do something according to (quasi-) law, contract, or … Ex) The vendor shall maintain the equipment in good repair. |
|
@obligation-not |
Obligation
not to do something, forbid to do something according to (quasi-) law,
contract or … Ex) Cars must not park in front of the entrance. Ex) No smoking |
|
@should |
To
do something as a matter of course Ex) You should do as he says. Ex) You ought to start at once. |
|
Possibility |
|
|
@certain |
Certainty
that something is true or happens Ex) If Peter had the money, he would have bought a car. |
|
@inevitable |
Logical
inevitability that something is true or happens Ex) There must be a mistake. Ex) They should be home by now. |
|
@may |
Practical
possibility that something is true or happens Ex) It may be true. Ex) It could be. |
|
@possible |
Logical
possibility that something is true or happens Ex) Anybody can make mistakes. Ex) If Peter had the money, he would buy a car. |
|
@probable |
(Practical)
probability that something is true or happens Ex) That would be his mother. Ex) He must be lying. |
|
@rare |
Rare
logical possibility that something is true or happens Ex) If such a thing should happen, what shall we do? Ex) If I should fail, I will [would] try again. |
|
@unreal |
Unreality
that something is true or happens Ex) If we had enough money, we could buy a car. Ex) If Peter had the money, he could buy a car. |
Regret |
|
|
@regret |
Regretful
feeling of the speaker about something Ex) It's a pity that he should miss such a golden opportunity. |
|
Surprises |
|
|
@surprised |
Surprised
feeling of the speaker about something Ex) (He has succeeded!) But that's great! |
Typical UNL structures can be expressed by attributes to avoid the complexity of enconverting and deconverting. These attributes do not express the speaker’s information.
|
@pl |
Plural |
These (this.@pl) are the wrong size. |
|
@angle_bracket |
< > are used |
|
|
@brace |
{ } are used |
|
|
@double_parenthesis |
(( )) are used |
|
|
@double_quote |
“ ” are used |
|
|
@parenthesis |
( ) are used |
UNL (Universal Networking Language) cnt(UNL, Universal Networking Language.@parenthesis) |
|
@single_quote |
‘ ’ are used |
|
|
@square_bracket |
[ ] are used |
|
Information is provided in UNL documents. The UNL document has the following format.
|
<UNL document> |
::= "[D:" <dinf> "]" { "[P:” <number> “]" { "[S:" <number> "]" <sentence> "[/S]" }... "[/P]" }... "[/D]" |
|
<dinf> |
::= <document name> "," <owner name> [ "," <document id> "," <date> "," <mail address> ] |
|
<document name> |
::= "dn=" <character string> |
|
<owner name> |
::= "on=" <character string> |
|
<document id> |
::= "did=" <character string> /* defined by system */ |
|
<date> |
::= "dt=" <character string> /* defined by system */ |
|
<mail address> |
::= "mid=" <character string> /* defined by system */ |
|
<sentence> |
::=
"{org:" <l-tag> [ "=" <code> ] "}"
<source sentence> "{/org}" "{unl" [ ":"
<uinf> ] "}" <UNL expression> "{/unl}"
"{" <l-tag> [ "=" <code> ] [ ":"
<sinf> "]" <generated sentence> "{/"
<l-tag> "}" /* necessary
information about one sentence */ |
|
<l-tag> |
::=
"ab" | "cn" | "de" | "el" |
"es" | "fr" | "id" | "hd" |
"it" | "jp" | "lv" | "mg" |
"pg" | "ru" | "sh" | "th" /* language flag */ |
|
<code> |
::= <character code name> |
|
<character code name> |
::= <character string> |
|
<source sentence> |
::= <character string> |
|
<generated sentence> |
::= <character string> |
|
<uinf> |
::=
<system name> "," <post editor name> ","
<reliability> [ "," <date> "," <mail
address> ] |
|
<sinf> |
::=
<system name> "," <post editor name> ","
<reliability> [ "," <date> "," <mail
address> ] |
|
<system name> |
::= "sn=" <character string> |
|
<post editor name> |
::= "pn=" <character string> |
|
<reliability> |
::= "rel=" <digit> |
|
<number> |
::= <digit>
/* sentence number */ |
The tags used in the above definition are the following.
|
[D:<dinf>] [/D] [P:<number>] [/P] [S:<number>] [/S] {org:<l-tag>=<code>} {/org} {unl:<uinf>} {/unl} |
indicates the Beginning of a document and the necessary information about the document indicates the End of a document indicates the Beginning of a paragraph indicates the End of a paragraph indicates the Beginning of a sentence and the sentence number indicates the End of a sentence indicates the Beginning of an original/source sentence, language and character code, “=<code>” can be omitted. indicates the End of an original sentence indicates the Beginning of the UNL expressions of a sentence and necessary information, “:<uinf>” can be omitted. indicates the End of the UNL expressions of a sentence |
See the following section about <UNL expression>.
A UNL expression of a sentence is identified with the following tags: {unl} and {/unl}.
There are two forms for expressing UNL expressions, one is the table form and the other is the list form. The table form of a UNL expression is more readable than the list form, but the list form of a UNL expression is more compact than the table form.
Any component, such as a word, phrase or title and, of course, a sentence of a natural language can be represented with UNL expressions. A UNL expression therefore consists of a UW or a (set of) binary relation(s). In UNL documents, a UNL expression for a sentence is enclosed by the tags {unl} and {/unl} inside [S] and [/S]. If a UNL expression consists of a UW, this UW should be enclosed further by the tags [W] and [/W]. If necessary, the whole sentence can also be expressed as a scope. In this case, the Compound UW-ID of the scope should be enclosed by [W] and [/W].
Thus, a UNL expression of a sentence is the following:
{unl}
<Binary Relation>
...
{/unl}
or,
{unl}
[W]
<UW><Attribute List>
[/W]
{/unl}
or,
{unl}
[W]
”:”<Compound UW-ID><Attribute List>
[/W]
<Binary Relation>
...
{/unl}
Each tag and binary relation should end with a return code: “0x0a”.
|
<Binary Relation> |
::= <Relation Label> [“:”<Compound UW-ID>] “(“ {{ <UW1> [":" <UW-ID1>]} | { “:” <Compound UW-ID1> }}[<Attribute List>] “,” {{ <UW2> [":" <UW-ID2>]} | { “:” <Compound UW-ID2> }}[<Attribute List>] “)” |
|
<Relation Label> |
::= a relation, see “Chapter 2: Relations” |
|
<UW> |
::= an UW, see “Chapter 3: Universal Words” |
|
<Attribute List> |
::= { “.” <Attribute> } … |
|
<Attribute> |
::= an attribute, see “Chapter 4: Attributes” |
|
<UW-ID> |
::= two characters of ‘0’ – ‘9’ and ‘A’ – ‘Z’ |
|
<Compound UW-ID> |
::= two-digit decimal number (00 – 99) 00 is used for representing the main sentence, which can be omitted. |
Compound UW-IDs are strings of two digits used to identify each instance specified by Compound UWs. Compound UWs are groups of binary relations (so-called “Scope-Nodes”) that can be referred to as a UW.
For instance, the following shows an example of a UNL expression of the sentence “I can hear a dog barking outside”.
{unl}
aoj(hear(icl>perceive(agt>thing,obj>thing)).@entry.@ability, I)
obj(hear(icl>perceive(agt>thing,obj>thing)).@entry.@ability, :01)
agt:01(bark(agt>dog).@entry, dog(icl>mammal))
plc:01(bark(agt>dog).@entry, outside(icl>place))
{/unl}
In the above UNL expression, “aoj”, “agt” and “obj” are the relation labels, “I”, “bark(agt>dog)”, “dog(icl>mammal)”, “hear(icl>perceive(agt>thing,obj>thing))” and “outside(icl>place)” are the UWs, and “:01”, which appears three times in the example, shows the Compound UW-ID. The Compound UW-ID appears in the position of a UW, the so-called “scope-node”, and is used to cite or refer to a Compound UW previously defined. Binary relations indicated by the Compound UW-ID define the contents of the scope. A scope-node always begin with “:” followed by the two digits of a Compound UW-ID.
UW-IDs are
omitted from the above UNL expression. When a UW is unique in a UNL expression,
the UW-ID can be omitted.
The UW-ID is used to indicate some referential information: that there are two or more different occurrences of the same concept (they are not co-referent). Normally, if the same UW occurs more than once, it is in all cases understood to refer to the same entity or occurrence. For example, if one man greeted another man, the same UW would be used twice -- “man(icl>male person)” to distinguish one from the other with UW-IDs:
man(icl>male person):01 for the first and
man(icl>male person):02 for the other, to make it clear that the first man did not greet himself.
The list form of a UNL expression consists of a set of UWs and encoded binary relations of a sentence. In case a whole sentence is treated as a scope, the Compound UW-ID of the scope for the sentence can be included in the UW list between [W] and [/W].
{unl}
[W]
{<UW> | {“:”<Compoun UW-ID>}}”:”<Node-ID> /* node identifier */
…
[/W]
[R]
<Encoded Binary Relation>
…
[/R]
{/unl}
The tags used above have the following meanings.
[W] indicates
the Beginning of the Node identifier
[/W] indicates
the End of the Node identifier
[R] indicates
the Beginning of the encoded binary relations
[/R] indicates
the End of the encoded binary relations
Each tag, encoded binary relation and node identifier should end with a return code: “0x0a”.
|
<Encoded Binary Relation> |
:= <Node1-ID><Relation Label>[“:”<Compound
UW-ID>]<Node2-ID> |
|
<Node-ID> |
:= two
characters of ‘0’ – ‘9’ and ‘A’ – ‘Z’ |
For instance, the following shows an example of the list form of a UNL expression of the sentence “I can hear a dog barking outside”.
{unl}
[W]
I:01
hear(icl>perceive(agt>thing,obj>thing)).@entry.@ability:02
dog(icl>mammal):03
bark(agt>dog).@entry:04
outside(icl>place):05
:01:06
[/W]
[R]
02aoj01
02obj06
04agt:0103
04plc:0105
[/R]
{/unl}
|
Symbol |
Definition |
|
::= | [ ] {} … “ ” < > |
to indicate the left is defined as the right to indicate two disjunctive elements: “or” to indicate an optional element to indicate an alternative element to indicate repetition of the previous element, 0 or more than 1 time to enclose a string of literal characters to indicate a variable name |
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